Issues

Abstract

The role of investing for each country's welfare is obvious. The international capital may come into a country's economics through international investments, different funds, and also through banks. To enable forestry to progress successfully and be competitive, some regular and stable investments are needed for its development. For the banks in Latvia, forestry has not been the priority sector in recent years. Understanding the special role of bank loans in forestry, in November 2009, a social research was carried out on the basis of a questionnaire in order to understand the attitude of the Latvian banks towards the forest land as a loan. The research revealed the strong and the weak sides of forestry, as well as some possible opportunities and threats in Latvia from the point of view of the banks. The results of the survey showed that banks consider forestry to be a very risky sector and they do not plan to deal with it in the near future.
Key words: banks, investments, forest value, forestry.

Abstract

Forest policy making is a process, making compromises of conflicting interests and political ambitions. However, the outcome in terms of i.e. timber production tends to be a guesswork. In Sweden, forecasting tools based on national inventory data and detailed simulations make hundred-year forecasts of policy alternatives possible. A case is presented where the government's ambitious policy of fomenting wood production for sawmilling, pulpwood and biofuel is contrasted with an equally ambitious action proposal to reach general environmental objectives formulated by parliament. A realistic scenario to implement both policies proved to differ very little from the, by itself quite ambitious, business-as-usual scenario, but would have a notable impact on the forest landscape. Yet, the past 50 years' management sets a general trend of increasing potential cut and standing stock, regardless of policy alternative examined. The analysis underlines that policy needs a hard factual base but cannot be separated from political values. The role of changed perceptions of forestry in society is also discussed.
Key words: policy evaluation, harvesting opportunity forecast, national forestry plan.

Abstract

The reaction of the isolates of the pathogenic species Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht. and Pythium debaryanum (R. Hesse) Nieuwl. to the presence of zinc, copper, lead and cadmium, which were added to the nutritive medium for the determination of their in vitro tolerance, measured by the inhibition of the growth of mycelium were studied. The experiments were performed in the laboratory conditions by adding the suspension of the zinc, copper, lead, and cadmium in three different concentrations on the nutritive medium. The influence of the heavy metals on the growth rate of the pathogenic fungi depended on the type of metal and their concentration. The lowest degree of influence was exhibited by the presence of zinc, whereas the highest concentration of cadmium exhibited the highest degree of influence. Fusarium oxysporum, the mycelium of which grew considerably slowly in the presence of all metals, exhibited the lowest degree of tolerance to heavy metals, whereas even the lowest concentrations of Pythium debaryanum are tolerant to the presence of all metals, even in case of the highest concentrations.
Key words: pathogenic fungi, nutritiv medium, tolerance to heavy metals, the growth of mycelium.

Abstract

This paper investigates some possibilities for suitable modeling of variable external loads in a regime of exploitation of a kind of wind turbines. On the base of the developed original model of wind turbines it is possible to study dynamical processes in different specific work regimes of this kind of wind turbines. This model allows to examine the behavior of the system in extraordinary situations and different work regimes and to define some recommendations for more effective work of that kind of wind turbines.
Key words: effectiveness, multibody dynamics, wind turbines.

Abstract

Main objective of this research is the study of the wood market and the wood products for the four Mediterranean member states of the European Union (Greece, Italy, France and Spain) and how the multiple regression could estimate the relationship between production, imports, exports and consumption for each wood product for every country, with explanatory demographical and economical variables and the time periods. The econometric research became using linear regression. The use of these simple models could be a useful tool in the hands of policy makers to take critical decisions about the future of the Mediterranean European timber market and how this market could strengthen the domestic economies generally.
Key words: wood products, European Mediterranean wood market, forest sector, timber production, forecasts.

Abstract

All legislation implies compromises between conflicting interests. In forestry, the stakeholder groups can be defined as forest owners, timber users, general public and ideological interests groups such as conservationists. Furthermore, a single actor may have ties to more than one group. Forestry legislation in its narrow sense usually has the owners as their primary target group, by issuing prohibitions, restrictions and mandatory actions, as well as in some cases incentives such as subsidy and advisory services. In many countries, forest owners are poorly organized, or there may be a strong polarity between the interests of family, corporate and public owners. Legislators tend to take law compliance for granted, but the process of making laws and regulations operative involves many steps, including communicative and value-based process. These aspects are frequently dealt with in forest policy research. Yet, forest owners can also be seen as economically rational actors. Much well intended legislation may never be effective, as the cost of law compliance is high to the owners. We examine three cases: Sweden in the 17^th century, and in the first half of the 20^th century, and Argentina today, and discuss the current situation in (mainly) Europe, where broadened societal targets such as sustainability and multifunctionality have to match the interests of family foresters.
Key words: goal conflicts, law compliance, rational choice.

Abstract

The main aims of the Pan-European project CORINE Land Cover (38 countries participating, including Bulgaria) are to identify and map the changes in land cover/land use for the period 2000-2006 using multispectral satellite imagery and producing a 1:100 000 digital map of Europe for the year 2006 (creating a geospatial database). The change detection is a process of a comparison and analysis of vector and raster data from the two time horizons. The adopted unified nomenclature for the 44 interpreted and mapped land cover classes includes 6 classes directly and closely connected with the thematic mapping of timber productive areas of the forest fund. Three of the most frequent changes in the Bulgarian forests are analysed by means of the CORINE Land Cover database - clear cuts, burnt areas and spots of sport and leisure facilities construction. A large scaled research has been also carried out for assessing the locations, the areas of the Mountain pine (Pinus mugo Turra) associations in Bulgaria and their long period changes.
Key words: satellite images, computer assisted image interpretation, land cover classes, clear cuts, burnt areas, Mountain pine (Pinus mugo Turra) associations.

Abstract

The hydraulic effectiveness of the xylem affects tree growth and the ability to survive drought conditions. Under drought stress the water transport system can fail. Trees differ in their capacity to maintain a functional xylem at low water potential, which is described by xylem vulnerability. In this study we present a method for measuring xylem vulnerability curves in small samples. Using tangential sections of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) wood, we quantify the loss in hydraulic conductivity by measuring the number of ultrasound acoustic emissions, which result when water-containing tracheids cavitate. At the same time the water potential of the sample was measured with a thermocouple psychrometer. To test the method we measured vulnerability to cavitation in samples of different wood types. The comparison between juvenile wood and mature earlywood spruce samples indicates that juvenile wood is more resistant to cavitation than mature wood. The anatomy of studied wood samples was also analyzed and was related to xylem functionality.
Key words: hydraulic diameter, juvenile wood, mature wood, Picea abies, tracheid thickness to span ratio, xylem vulnerability.

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to analyze the shade conditions of Pinus nigra Arn. stands in the island of Thasos, which is situated in the northern part of Aegean Sea. Thirty six plots of various dimensions were established in P. nigra stands, varying in age and structure. For every plot, the diameter at breast height (DBH) for all trees was recorded and the dominant height in each story was estimated. Moreover in each plot, increment cores were taken, at a height of 1.3 m, in the main diameter classes. Three to fifteen hemispherical photographs were taken in each plot resulting in a total of 240 photographs. The amount of sky visible (V.s.=Visible sky) as a proportion of the whole hemisphere when viewed from a point was used as a measure of shade. For each photograph the V.s. value was calculated. Visible sky is related to the potential of the canopy to transmit incident light and allows comparisons between sites in different locations. The V.s. values in P. nigra stands ranged from 0.036 to 0.281. The young stands in stem exclusion stage exhibited the lowest mean V.s. value, while the greatest range of V.s. values (0.042 to 0.281) was observed in stands having old growth structure. The P. nigra stands in Thasos exhibit a wide range of shade - light environments as a result of their different and heterogeneous structures in combination with the morphological characteristics and ecology of the species.
Key words: light, stand structure, stand age, old growth, stem exclusion, biodiversity.

Abstract

Coppice-with-standards (CWS) is an ancient forest system in Europe which served for centuries to provide timber and a number of other goods, like firewood, poles and fodder to the society while maintaining a continuous forest cover. Since the dawn of modern forestry the area of coppice and CWS forest in Germany has constantly decreased. With the recent rise of energy prices and of wood as a renewable source interest in this system aroused again. Also it was found that CWS forests because of their diversity in structure are a precious habitat for rare and endangered animal and plant species in comparison with high forests. We present two management options in one of the biggest remaining forests of this type in Germany, in Lower Frankonia, Bavaria. The first management option is directed to increase the value of the remaining trees (standards) in the coppice stands in order to cope with timber trees from high forests. The second management option includes an agro-silvopastoral component: in a pilot project we use coppice-with-standards forests as a pasture for Swabian-Hall swines, which are famous for their superior meat quality. The integrative character of this project may support the conservation of the Swabian-Hall swine, which remains an endangered race on the red list of the Society for the Conservation of Old and Endangered Livestock Breeds.
Key words: forest reared Swabian-Hall swine, oaks, silvopastoral system, uneven coppice.

Abstract

The total forest area in the Czech part of the Slezske Beskydy Mts. is 196,894 ha. Forest decline appeared on ca 32 thousand ha of forest land. Climatic studies confirmed the changes of precipitation amounts and its pattern as well as the change of temperature and sunshine in the period 1961-2006 in comparison with long-term average values in 1901-1950 and with calculated standard of 1961-1990. It is apparent that cultivation of Norway spruce in this region in previous extent will be impossible in future. The study brings more detailed information about this ecological catastrophe and the main principles of the new forestry concept in the Slezske Beskydy Mts. which consists in the differentiated change of species composition, adequate thinning regime, more natural continuous cover forestry supporting water management in the forest stands and fertility of forest soils.
Key words: forest decline, Norway spruce, climate change, forest soils, silviculture.

Abstract

In the Black Sea region located in north of Turkey, timber extraction with skidding vehicle is the most common system and also the one that tends to cause erosion problems. The combination of the timber type and topography limit harvesting mechanization to perform transport operations. Rubber tires tractors are used on the more gentle slopes and on skid roads on steeper terrain. In this study, productivity of New Holland farm tractor in beech stands was tested in the area of Gurgentepe Local Forest Enterprise within the Ordu Forest Administration in Turkey. Timber was skidded uphill by New Holland farm tractor in felling area. Time study of a cycle was carried out by using collected data and by statistical analysis. In this study, skidding distance ranges between 140 and 320 m. Hourly productivity are 11.350 m³.hour^-1 for skidding distance of 140 m, 7.700 m³.hour^-1 for skidding distance of 320 m. The cost of cubic meter of skidding are 4.5 $ and 8.6 $ as different distance. The average fuel consumption are 6.0 l.hour^-1.
Key words: New Holland tractor, skidding, productivity, cost, time study.

Abstract

A preliminary evaluation of forest functions is fundamental in the forest landscape management planning. The evaluation addresses long-term management issues, with special attention to social and environmental functions, normally not meticulously considered when working on a single forest property level. This paper presents a method to evaluate forest multifunctionality, in order to define management guidelines and support forest planning. A case study based in the Basilicata region, Southern Italy, was conducted. A total of 92 study areas comprising the main forest types - i) Turkey Oak, Hungarian Oak, and Sessile Oak Forests, ii) Downy Oak Forests, and iii) Mediterranean Evergreen Oak Forests, were considered. According to each forest type, an Index of Importance of Function (I) and three different indicators of multifunctionality were calculated.
Key words: forest functions, land classification, Forest Landscape Management Plan (FLMP), Basilicata region (Italy).

Abstract

Forests are experiencing a new situation in many highly industrialized countries: their goods and services are much more in demand than they were a couple of decades ago. The development of forest-based industry; the use of wood for energy production as a contribution to climate protection and to the security of energy supplies; and initiatives to tackle the loss of biodiversity, are doubtless some of the most prominent sources of growing demand for forest goods and services. This new situation increases the competition between consumers of the respective private and public goods and services, and hence, necessitates a revision of forest allocation decisions. Using the example of Germany, a simple forecast of supply and demand to the year 2020 shows that supply and demand will probably not match. To close this gap, demand must either be adjusted, e.g., through the improvement of material and energy efficiency, and/or supply must be enhanced through, e.g., reduction of high accumulated forest stock, use of small wood and short rotation coppices or imports. Since valuation results for non-market forest services are still limited to some rather general examples, opportunity costs are calculated to support policy decisions with regard to forest allocation. For this purpose, a partly closed input-output model was used to calculate added value in the use of wood. The results were applied to a current proposal to protect biodiversity. A decision to refrain from harvesting timber on 460,000 ha old beech stands yields an overall of added value loss of 2.3 billion E, which is equivalent to 41,600 full-time employees in Germany., About 880 million E‚ taxes are included within the loss of added value. However, in order to find 'optimal' solutions for forest allocation, opportunity costs only mark a minimum threshold, which benefits must exceed.

Abstract

Social capital is defined as what is existing in the structures of interactions between individuals and groups (collective and individual social actors) which are said to develop trust and social rules and to strengthen cooperation and reciprocity. On the other hand social capital depends on the quality and quantity of interactions and it can facilitate coordination and cooperation in decision making process. Considering that networks are a crucial part of the social capital, the present paper analyses the potentiality of Social Network Analysis (SNA) to support the forest landscape management planning. The authors have applied, in Arci-Grighine forestry district (Sardinia - Italy), the assessment of institutional social capital. The method used to evaluate institutional social capital considers three phases: i) the mapping of stakeholders, ii) the analysis of voluntary associations with particular reference to the environmental and forestry sector, iii) the analysis of social network considering type and force of ties (weak and strong ties). The authors present and discuss the utility of these tools to support collaborative forest planning, in particular to take into account the needs of stakeholders and the necessity of limiting the conflicts.
Key words: social capital, decision making, social network analysis, forest planning.

Abstract

Local trade in tree fruits has offered an important source of cash income and employment to trading households for generations in the drier areas of Sudan. Yet, it is contribution to the rural households is not acknowledged. The study investigates the extent to which the local trade contributes to rural household economy with special emphasis on cash income and employment; and identifies the factors influence the level of cash income earned from the local business. Data were collected from 70 households purposely selected using interviews and direct observation in 2008/2009 season. The results indicated that fruits local trade was generated the highest annual average cash income (US$ 202.73) fallowed by agriculture (US$ 71.57), remittances (US$ 49.81), wage labor (US$ 30.10), and livestock (US$ 20.40). Also, the most of the employment (30%) was generated by local trade fallowed by agriculture (25%). There are significant variations in cash income earnings. These variations are attributed to household personal characteristics and market variables. The study concluded that tree fruits local trade is the most important source of cash income and employment. Microfinance and local sellers' organization are recommended to sustain and increase the economic returns from the local business in the fruits much beyond what currently contribute today.
Key words: cash income, employment, rural economy, Sudan, tree fruits.

Abstract

Ecological and economic considerations increased the interest in growing valuable tree species. Timber quality depends on the genetic characteristics of the individual tree, site conditions as well as on management. Applying an appropriate treatment trees can yield high quality timber within relatively short production times. Forest management has to find new ways to increase net revenue from timber sales by increasing wood quality while keeping production costs low. Through precise and aim oriented management efficiency can be improved. All activities have to be linked to the value producing trees, as those are the economically relevant trees. When dealing with fast growing broadleaves the number of final crop trees per ha is relatively small. This is due to the fact that valuable trees need to have a large diameter, and those trees can only be produced with a big crown. In order to reduce costs the number of trees to be planted can be limited to much less than was considered in the past.
Thinning is applied for controlling the quality of the wood production; in particular, it is used for favoring future crop trees, controlling their diameter growth and natural pruning. A two-phase management system is recommended: first phase emphasizing pruning, and second phase encouraging crown expansion and stimulating diameter growth. There is a close relation between crown expansion and diameter growth. An allometric model describing the relation between crown width and stem diameter is used to calculate the intensity of thinning in order to control diameter growth. The time of harvest is determined by the time of maximum average value production, the marked situation and other factors. The idea of fixed rotation may be abandoned as trees of the same age can grow in groups. Group selection cut may be preferred as larger gaps are needed to fulfil the light requirements of the new generation.
Key words: economically relevant trees, pruning, revenue, timber quality, valuable tree species.

Abstract

The current Cooperative Extension System in the United States has in roots in two historic pieces of legislation. The first, the Morrill Act of 1862, created the land grant university system, in which a network of agricultural universities was established in each state, followed by agricultural research stations. In 1914 the U.S. Congress passed the Smith-Lever Act, which created the Cooperative Extension System, a joint partnership between the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the state land grant universities, and local units of government in each state. This partnership has endured to the present day, and is often held up as a model for helping farmers, families, and individuals improve their lives and livelihoods. Today, most state Extension Services have statewide programs in the broad areas of agriculture; youth, families, and communities; and the environment and natural resources, including forestry. Hallmarks of extension education include a focus on problem solving, education based on research-based knowledge, education oriented toward client needs, an emphasis on partnerships (particularly at the local level), and an emphasis on evaluation of results. A typical extension model involves engaging stakeholders and partners to identify problems and potential solutions through education, designing educational materials and programs, conducting programs, and follow-up evaluations to determine outcomes in both the short and long terms. A typical example of such a program in Oregon is the Master Woodland Manager Program, which has been in operation for over 20 years. In 2008 this program won a national award for the best Forestry Extension program in the U.S. from the National Woodland Owners Association. Through this program forest owners receive 85 hours of training in 11 modules. They become very knowledgeable in subjects such as silviculture, reforestation, watershed management, and communications. Following completion of the program they become volunteers, assisting other forest owners and often leading them to practice much better management on their lands. Since the inception of the Master Woodland Manager Program, over 400 forest owners have completed the training, and provided over 30,000 hours of volunteer service.
Key words: Forest Extension, Cooperative Extension System, forest owners.